Grammar and spelling

Grammar
Punctuation
Sentences
Spelling

In academic writing, always follow the rules of punctuation and grammar. Punctuation and grammar conventions are universally known systems within individual languages that maintain clarity and avoid ambiguity in expression. It's important that the spelling and grammar check software on your computer is turned on and set to the correct language.

Parts of speech Find out the definition and purpose of different parts of speech, including adjectives, nouns, pronouns, verbs and others.

Part of speech	Purpose	Example parts of speech	Parts of speech in sentence
Adjective	To modify or describe a noun or pronoun.	significant irreparable sharpest deepest early	A recent meteoroid strike has caused significant and irreparable damage to a panel on the James Webb Space Telescope, which has produced the sharpest and deepest images of the early universe to date.
Adverb	To modify or qualify an adjective or verb in terms of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, or degree.	functionally visually	Mesoamerican writing systems share fundamental features that make them functionally and visually distinct from the writing systems of other cultures.
Article	To classify a noun as either specific or general.	the a	Nuka Hiva, the largest of the Marquesas Islands, inspired a novel called Typee by the American writer, Herman Melville.
Conjunction	To connect clauses and sentences, or words within the same clause.	and but	The Galápagos islands, once the summits of active volcanoes, were heat sterilized and 600 miles from land, but they became home to many unique species including the Galápagos giant tortoise and the marine iguana.
Modal	To denote the mood of a verb and indicate ability, possibility, intent, or necessity.	may could should	In the future, it may be possible to record and replay our dreams. This could have huge implications for how we see ourselves and others. The potential consequences of dream capturing technologies should always be considered.
Noun (common)	To identify a person, place, or object.	evidence behaviour dead graves offerings flowers	Archaeological evidence suggests that Neanderthals exhibited symbolic behaviour by burying their dead and marking graves with offerings such as flowers.
Preposition	To express the relationship of a word (noun or pronoun) with another word or element	around in	As of 22 June 2022, there were 5,044 confirmed exoplanets orbiting around stars in other solar systems.
Pronoun	To replace a noun that has already been mentioned.	It	Dabke (Arabic: دبكة) is a folk dance commonly performed at weddings in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan. It combines circle dance and line dance.
Proper noun	To identify a particular person, animal, place, country, monument, or title.	May Elon Musk Starlink SpaceX Falcon 9	In May 2019, Elon Musk launched the first 60 Starlink satellites on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.
Verb	To indicate an action, state, or occurrence.	explode launch	The sandbox tree, native to tropical South America, is one of the world’s most dangerous trees. Its seed capsules explode with a loud bang and launch hard, flattened seeds over distances of around 30 metres at speeds of up to 250km per hour.
Verbals	Verbals are words that resemble verbs but function as other parts of speech.
Gerunds	Gerunds end in -ing and function like nouns.	Reading Climbing Mount Kilimanjaro	Reading literally changes your mind. MRI scans have revealed that reading increases brain connectivity, especially in the somatosensory cortex.Climbing Mount Kilimanjaro would take around 103,488 steps and burn around 13,549 calories. (“Climbing Mount Kilimanjaro” is a gerund phrase functioning as the subject of the sentence.)
Participles	Participles often end in -ed or -ing and function like adjectives.	constructed dying	The constructed language of Esperanto has a 28-letter alphabet.Hadza, a dying tribal language of northern Tanzania, is believed by some linguists to resemble humanity’s first ancestral language.
Infinitives	Infinitives consist of the word to and a verb (in its basic form), and they function, among other things, as nouns, adjectives and adverbs.	To read another person’s mind to engineer	To read another person’s mind is not strictly possible. (“To read another person’s mind” functions as the noun phrase or subject of the sentence.)The aim of some researchers is to engineer telepathy and enable direct brain-to-brain communication without the intervention of a computer. (“To engineer” functions as an adjective modifying the noun “aim.”)By engineering telepathy, researchers want to improve the lives of those with sensory or speech difficulties. (“To improve” functions like an adverb modifying the verb “want.”)

Grammar

Grammar rules and structure organise words into sentences for clear and effective communication.

Prepositions

Prepositions are used before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase to:

indicate a relationship in space or time
signal a relationship between people or objects.

You can combine a preposition with a noun, verb or adjective to form a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases in English fall into 2 categories:

Adverbial phrases – prepositional phrases that modify the meaning of a verb. For example: ‘On behalf of Massey University, I would like to thank you for visiting this page’
Adjectival phrases – prepositional phrases that modify the meaning of a noun. For example: ‘In answer to your question, the aspect of English grammar that learners often find most difficult is preposition usage’.

It is sometimes unnecessary to know whether a prepositional phrase is functioning in an adverbial or an adjectival way.

Prepositional phrases are often highly idiomatic and there are few clear rules. It is best to learn the key word and its accompanying preposition as a 'word package'. Read and listen to a wide variety of materials in English to familiarise yourself with how to use prepositional phrases in sentences.

Do not use too many prepositions in one sentence as this may make it sound ‘wordy’ and confusing.

Example of 'wordy' sentence

‘In my opinion, in addition to communicating an idea clearly, a sentence should, in theory, aim at using as few words as possible, because wordiness can result in the reader experiencing confusion about the writer’s argument, as a result of which the plausibility of that argument may be reduced.’

Example of clear sentence

‘A sentence should communicate an idea in as few words as possible, because wordiness may confuse the reader and reduce the plausibility of the writer’s argument’.

Writing concisely in academic writing

Common prepositional phrases in academic writing

Prepositions with nouns The key word in the prepositional phrase is a noun.

Prepositional phrases used with nouns
access to	insight into
in accordance with	for instance
on account of	intention of
addiction to	interaction between
in addition to	of interest to
advantage/disadvantage of	justification for
in agreement with	knowledge of
alternative to	lack of
in answer to	lecture on
argument about (a topic) for/against (a viewpoint)	at length
aspect of	limitation of
attack on	method of
attitude to	in my opinion
on behalf of	opinion of (a person)/about (something)
belief in	in order to
cause of	participation in
comparison between	partnership between
in comparison with	perspective on
in conclusion	in practice
in connection with	preference for
connection between	prelude to
on condition (that)	proof of
confusion about	purpose of (something)/in (doing something)
in contrast to	reaction to
criteria for	reason for
decrease in	recovery from
delay in	reduction in
demand for	as regards
dependence on	in regard to
deviation from	with regard to
difference between (2 objects) of (opinion)	report on
distinction between	with respect to
in doubt	responsibility for
effect of (climate change)	rise in
effect on (the environment)	scope for
example of	solution to
for example	strategy for
experience of (doing something)/in (the area of…)	success in
implication of	in theory
importance of	theory of
increase/decrease in	thesis on/about
information about	understanding of

Prepositions with verbs & common phrasal verbs in academic writing The key word in the prepositional phrase is a verb.

Prepositions with verbs & common phrasal verbs
to add to	to differ from
to adhere to	to impact on
to agree with (an idea) to (do something)	to interfere with (something)/in (a matter)
to aim at (finishing a project)/for (a target)	to object to
to allow for	to prepare for (an exam) to (do something)
to apply for (a job)/to (all first-year students)	to present (somebody) with (something)
to approve of	to prevent (somebody) from (doing something)
to argue with (someone)/about (a topic) for (an idea) against (an idea)	to protest about
to choose between	to provide (somebody) with (something)
to comment on	to react to
to compare with	to refer to
to concentrate on	to relate to
to conform to	to result in
to consent to	to stand for
to consist of	to succeed in
to decide on (a plan) to (do something)	to think of/about
to depend on

For the differences between prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs, read: Let down and look after: the difference between prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs

Verbs with no preposition The key word is a verb which can be used without a preposition.

Verbs without prepositions
to affect	to hinder
to approach	to influence
to assess	to inhabit
to avoid	to investigate
to comprise	to lack
to consider	to oppose
to discuss	to request
to effect	to resemble
to emphasize	to seek
to equal	to source

Prepositions with adjectives The key word in the prepositional phrase is an adjective.

Prepositional phrases used with adjectives
absent from	essential to
according to	excluded by (an object /person) /from (a group)
accustomed/unaccustomed to	familiar with
advantageous/disadvantageous for	harmful to
associated with	interested in
aware/unaware of	involved in
based on	opposed to
beneficial to	popular with/among (a group of people)
in brief	prior to
capable/incapable of	responsible for
characteristic/uncharacteristic of	satisfied/dissatisfied with
composed of	sensitive to/towards
concerned with (a matter)/concerned about (a person)	serious about
consistent with	similar to
detrimental for	suitable for
devoid of	sympathetic towards
different from	typical of

Articles (a, an, the)

Articles function like adjectives. They are used to modify nouns and define them as specific or unspecific. There are 2 articles in English:

The – definite article. Signals the specific or particular nature of the noun.
A or An – indefinite article. Signals the non-specific or non-particular nature of the noun.

Rules for articles

Use 'a' before consonant sounds and 'an' before vowel sounds

Use 'a' before consonant sounds. Consonant sounds include all letters of the English alphabet which are not vowels.

Use 'an' before vowel sounds – vowel sounds are a, e, i, o, u.

Exceptions:

Use 'a' before 'eu' and before 'u' when it sounds like the word ‘you’.
Use 'an' before words that begin with a silent 'h'.

Examples

a boy, a cat, a tree, a university (sounds like ‘you’), a European city (sounds like ‘you’), a house (hard ‘h’)

an umbrella, an engineer, an apple, an hour (au-er; silent h)

Use 'a' or 'an' for something unknown and 'the' for something your reader knows

'A' and 'an' are called indefinite articles. Use 'a' or 'an' to mention about a person or thing unknown to your listener or reader.

'The' is called the definite article. Use 'the' to mention a person or thing known to your listener or reader.

Examples

My brother has 2 cars: a Ford and a BMW. The Ford is quite old but the BWM is brand new.

In this example, use 'a' first because this is the first mention of the car. Use 'the' next because the car has already been mentioned.

I planted some strawberries in my garden. The strawberries are sweet.

In this example, use 'some' first because this is the first mention of the strawberries. Use 'the' next because the strawberries have already been mentioned.

Can you open the door?

Use 'the' because if you are sitting in a room, you will know which door the speaker is referring to.

The lady in the grey dress is my lecturer.

Use 'the' to refer to a specific person and provide additional information about the person so that the listener can identify which 'the' is being referred to.

Where is the money I lent you last month?

This is referring specifically to the money you lent last month.

Use 'a' or 'an' only with single countable nouns

Examples of countable nouns

an elephant
an onion
an hour
an interesting story

Use 'a' or 'an' to talk about non-specific things or people

Example – specified things or people

'Do you have a pen?' is referring to any pen.
'I want to buy a car' indicates you haven't decided which car.

Example – non-specified things or people

'Do you have the pen that I gave you last week?' is referring to a specific pen.
'I want to buy the Ford car we saw last week' indicates you have decided which car.

Use 'a' or 'an' to talk about the category or type of a person or thing

Examples

My car is a 2008 BWM hatchback.

Use 'a' to refer to a type of car.

You can use your desktop as a laptop monitor.

Use the noun phrase 'laptop monitor' to describe what type of thing your desktop can be used as.

Joe's son is a kind boy.

Use 'a' to describe what type of boy Joe's son is.

I would like to become a member of your football club.

Use 'a' to refer to a category you would like to belong to.

She worked as a librarian for 5 years.

Use 'a' to refer to a type of category.

Use no article to talk about all of something in general, or use articles with a singular countable noun to mean 'every single one.'

Examples

Students should be kind to teachers.

In this example, use no article to refer to all students and teachers in general terms.

A student should be kind to his or her teachers.

In this example, use 'a' as you are still referring to all students.

Monkeys are very intelligent

In this example you are referring to all monkeys in general terms.

The monkey is a very intelligent animal.

In this example you are still referring to all monkeys.

Use no article if you are talking about uncountable nouns

Examples

Exercise is good for health.

Exercise and health are uncountable. Here, you can't say 'the exercise' or 'the health' because it's not a countable noun. Don't use an article when you talk about things in general.

Education is very important in life.

Education and life are uncountable. Here you can't say 'the education' or 'the life' because it's not a countable noun. Don't use an article when you talk about things in general.

Use 'a' or 'an' with prices, frequency and speed

Examples

Prices
It cost $2 a kilogram.
Frequency
I drink about 5 glasses of tea a day.
Speed
I'm driving at 60 miles an hour.

Use 'a' before hundred, thousand and million

Example

A thousand days.

Use 'a' or 'an' when talking about jobs

Example

I’m a musician.

Use 'the' when referring to the act of playing an instrument

Example

I play the piano.

Use 'the' with groups of islands, large regions, deserts, seas, united countries, canals, mountain ranges or rivers

Examples

the Sahara Desert
the United Arab Emirates
the Mekong River
the Red Sea
the Andes
the Maldives
the African plains
the Panama Canal

Use an article for places:

the movies
the post office
the airport
the hospital
the doctor
the bus stop
the dentist.

In particular situations, you should use no articles:

Proper nouns-names of people, places and holidays
Names of languages or games
Fixed expressions.

'The' is part of the name of some countries, for example the United Kingdom, the United States, the Netherlands, the United Arab Emirates, the Philippines. In these cases, treat 'the' as part of the name, not as an article.

Examples – people, places and holidays

Lisa, Joe, Siva, Lim
New Zealand, Japan, Australia
Christmas, Diwali, Thanksgiving

Examples – languages or games

badminton, cricket, tennis
Spanish, French, Mandarin.

Examples – fixed expressions

at noon
on Sunday
at home
travel by train
to school
to work
on George Street
to bed.

Conditionals

Conditionals describe the result of a real or hypothetical condition. They contain 2 clauses:

A clause beginning with ‘If’ that introduces the condition.
A main clause that indicates the consequence or result of that condition.

There are 4 main types of conditional in English. Each is used to indicate either the likelihood of a situation occurring or the likelihood that it would have occurred under particular circumstances:

Zero and First conditionals are sometimes known as ‘real conditionals’, because they are used for situations that are certain or highly likely.
Second and Third conditionals are often called ‘unreal conditionals’ because they are used for situations which are improbable or impossible.

The 4 conditionals

Zero Conditional (real)

For general and scientific truths – situations in which 1 occurrence always leads to a particular consequence.

In sentences using the Zero Conditional, the word ‘if’ can be swapped for the word ‘when’, because the consequence will always be the same.

Use 'If' + present simple tense + present simple tense.

Example – likelihood = 100%

If you heat wax, it melts.

When you heat wax, it melts.

First Conditional (real)

For real or highly likely future scenarios. Use 'If' + present simple tense + will + infinitive (without ‘to’).

Example – likelihood = highly likely

If I get 80% for the exam, I will have an A grade average overall.

Second Conditional (unreal)

For impossible or improbable situations in the present and future. Use 'If' + past simple tense + would + infinitive (without ‘to’).

When ‘If I’ is followed by the verb to ‘be’, it is grammatically correct to say ‘If I were..’, and ‘If he/she/it were’. This use of ‘were’ is a relic of the English subjunctive. However, native speakers will often use ‘was’, particular with he/she/it.

Example – likelihood = impossible or improbable

If I had a photographic memory, I would never need to take notes from books.

Third Conditional (unreal)

For hypothetical situations in the past, situations that did not occur or unreal imaginary situations. The Third conditional is used to indicate that present circumstances might have been different, had circumstances in the past differed.

Use 'If' + past perfect tense + would have + past participle.

Example – hypothetical or imaginary

If I had been good at maths, I could have been an astrophysicist.

Mixed conditionals

Mixed conditionals are ‘mixed’ in the sense that the condition and the consequence are situated in different periods of time. In other words, the 2 parts of the sentence refer to different times. Mixed conditionals are commonly used by native speakers, and they always express unreal or impossible situations.

Examples

Present condition – Past consequence

If I were a keen writer, I would have become a journalist after leaving university.
But I am not a keen writer, and so I didn’t become a journalist after leaving university.

Present condition – Future consequence

If I were good at public speaking, I would be giving a paper at the conference in New York next month.
But I am not good at public speaking, and so I will not be giving a paper at the conference in New York next month.

Past condition – Present consequence

If I had learnt Spanish at school, I would be able to understand this journal article.
But I didn’t learn Spanish at school, and so I can’t understand this journal article.

Past condition – Future consequence

If I had saved hard enough, I would be going to Ecuador with you next summer.
But I didn’t save hard enough, and so I will not be going to Ecuador.

Future condition – Present consequence

If I were sitting the exam tomorrow, I would be really nervous.
But I will not be sitting the exam tomorrow, so I am not nervous.

Future condition – Past consequence

If I weren’t going to do a PhD at Massey, I would already have applied for a job overseas.
But I am going to do a PhD at Massey, so I didn’t apply for a job overseas.

Punctuation of conditional sentences

Add a comma after the ‘If’ clause, if it precedes the clause describing the consequence.

Example

If I finish a draft of my assignment in time, I will submit it to the pre-reading service.

If the clause describing the consequence precedes the ‘If’ clause, no comma is required.

Example

I will submit a draft of my assignment to the pre-reading service if I finish it in time.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that replace nouns. Their function is to reduce repetition within a sentence, so that the sentence is smoother and more efficient. However, if pronouns aren’t used carefully, the meaning of the sentence may become ambiguous.

Pronoun: a word that replaces a noun
Antecedent: the noun to which the pronoun refers.

Type of pronoun	Pronoun examples
personal	I, you, he, she
possessive	my, your, his, her
demonstrative	this, that, these, those
relative	who, which, that
indefinite	some, anybody, everyone, no one
reflexive and intensive	myself, yourself, himself, herself
interrogative	who, what, which, whose

Each pronoun used should refer unambiguously to a specific noun. For example:

Clear: The article by X is the most persuasive. It argues that colonisation of Mars is critical for our survival as a species.
In this sentence, 'it' can only refer to the article by X. There is no other possible antecedent.
Unclear: The article by X draws on earlier research by Y and contains a summary of historic Mars landings. It argues that colonisation of Mars is critical for our survival as a species.
Here, the 'it' could refer to the article by X, or the research by Y, or the summary of historic Mars landings. There is room for misinterpretation.

Pronoun rules

To refer to a specific antecedent and not to a group of words, use only:

which
this
that
it.

If there is no risk of ambiguity, you don't need to follow this rule. Read 'Broad pronoun reference' for more information.

Place pronouns as close to their antecedents as possible. If there are too many words between the pronoun and its antecedent, the pronoun reference may be unclear. In this situation, it is often best to replace the pronoun with its appropriate noun or noun phrase.

Example

Unclear:

New Zealand's native birds evolved in isolation for millions of years, free from mammalian predators such as cats, rats, stoats and possums. Sixty-eight percent of them are now under threat of extinction.

Clear:

New Zealand's native birds evolved in isolation for millions of years, free from mammalian predators such as cats, rats, stoats and possums. Sixty-eight percent of these bird species are now under threat of extinction.

Pronouns must agree in number with their antecedents. Plural antecedents require plural pronouns and singular antecedents require singular pronouns.

Singular antecedent: The sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old and it accounts for 99.86% of the mass in the solar system.
Plural antecedent: The moons of Jupiter vary dramatically in size and they have orbital periods ranging from 7 hours to almost 3 Earth years.

Types of unclear pronoun reference

Ambiguous pronoun reference The pronoun could have 2 or more antecedents.

Ambiguous example

John gave David a copy of ‘Look Back in Anger’ which was his favourite stage play.

Whose favourite play? John's or David’s?

Example correction

John gave a copy of his favourite stage play, ‘Look Back in Anger’, to David.

Implied or 'hidden' pronoun reference The pronoun's antecedent is a possessive adjective rather than a noun. Possessive adjectives are used to indicate ownership or possession of something.

Implied pronoun example

In Forster's 'A Passage to India', he often depicts racial tension.

Since 'Forster' is functioning here as a possessive adjective rather than a noun, the antecedent for the pronoun 'he' is only implied.

Example correction

In 'A passage to India', Forster often depicts racial tension.

Broad pronoun reference 'Which', 'this', 'that' or 'it' refer to a whole clause or sentence rather than a specific noun or noun phrase.

Some people think that using broad pronoun references implies vagueness or fuzziness of thought. However, often these words can be used in this way if the meaning remains clear.

Example

Here 'This' refers to 'going to the polling station and exercising the right to vote' rather than to a single antecedent. The pronoun reference here is broad and yet the meaning is still clear:

If you are eligible to vote, you should go to the polling station and exercise that right. This is a sign that you value living in a democracy.

However, you could make the meaning clearer by replacing 'This' with a noun phrase. For example:

If you are eligible to vote, you should go to the polling station and exercise that right. Turning out to vote is a sign that you value living in a democracy.

Example

This example uses 'which' to refer to a group of words, and yet the meaning is still clear:

Thirty-one percent of all deaths worldwide each year are caused by cardiovascular disease, which suggests that education on cardiovascular health should be more broadly promoted.

You could make the sentence clearer by reinserting the noun phrase:

Thirty-one percent of all deaths worldwide each year are caused by cardiovascular disease. This death rate suggests that education on cardiovascular health should be more broadly promoted.

Avoid using 'which', 'this', 'that' or 'it' if there is a risk of ambiguity.

Example

Many of us work long hours in office-based jobs and have limited time to shop and cook, making the convenience of cheap fast food difficult to resist. This is fuelling the global surge in obesity and non-communicable diseases like diabetes.

'This' could refer to either 'long working hours in offices' or 'limited spare time' or 'cheap and convenient fast food' or a combination of all three.

To clarify the argument, reinsert the noun phrases that summarise your key point:

Sedentary lifestyles, little free time and competitively priced fast food are fuelling the global surge in obesity and non-communicable diseases like diabetes.

No antecedent The pronoun's antecedent is a possessive adjective rather than a noun. Possessive adjectives are used to indicate ownership or possession of something.

Example with no antecedent

The student called the language school, but they didn't answer.

'They' has no antecedent, because this sentence makes no mention of anyone working at the language school.

Example correction

The student called the language school, but the receptionist didn't answer.

The student called the language school, but no one answered.

Punctuation

Punctuation gives meaning and clarity to your words and sentences.

Apostrophes

We use apostrophes for 2 reasons. To show that:

letters have been left out of a word (omitted letters)
something belongs to or is a part of something else (grammatical possession).

When not to use an apostrophe Do not use apostrophes to show possession for pronouns and noun plurals or to indicate plural letters, numbers and symbols.

Its (without an apostrophe) is a possessive pronoun.

	Do	Don't
Referring to decades	1920s, 1850s	1920's, 1850's
Indicating more than 1 of something	I like to eat tomatoes	I like to eat tomato's
Showing grammatical possession for pronouns	ours, yours, hers, its	our's, your's, her's, it's

Omitted letters Apostrophes show where 1 or more letters have been removed – known as a contraction.

Contraction	Words
Can't	Cannot
Didn't	Did not
Don't	Do not
I'd	I would or I had
I'll	I will
It's	It is or It has
We'll	We will or we shall
Who's	Who is
Won't	Will not
You'd	You would or you had

Grammatical possession Possession means that 1 word belongs to or is a part of another word.

Indicate possession by adding apostrophe s to the end of the word:

Zhi's finger
The car's horn
The president's suit

Do not use an apostrophe when showing possession for a pronoun, so ‘it's’ does not mean 'belonging to it':

its equals belonging to it
it's equals it is

Grammatical possession and plural words

If a word is plural – there is more than 1 of the word, you usually add an s without an apostrophe.

Singular	Plural
Student	Students
Girl	Girls
Boy	Boys
Dog	Dogs

If you want to indicate possession of a plural word, do not add the s with another apostrophe s. Instead, place an apostrophe at the end of the word.

Do	Don't
The students' flat	The students's flat
All girls' uniforms	All girls's uniforms
All boys' uniforms	All boys's uniforms
The dogs' bones	The dogs's bones

Irregular plurals

Some words indicate more than 1 of a word without adding an s. To show possession, add apostrophe s.

Singular	Plural	Possession
Child	Children	The children's toys
Man	Men	The men's names

Plurals ending -ies

Some plural words end with 'ies'. To show possession, add an apostrophe at the end of the word.

Singular	Plural	Possession
Country	Countries	The countries' leaders
Baby	Babies	The babies' prams
Story	Stories	The stories' endings.

Commas

Use commas to mark off parts of a longer sentence to make the meaning clearer. The comma has 4 basic uses:

joining 2 sentences with a linking word
adding extra information to a sentence
listing items in a series
separating addresses and large numbers.

If a comma does not match 1 of these 4 uses, remove it from your writing.

Joining 2 sentences with a linking word

Use a comma to join 2 sentences, but there must be a linking word, such as 'and', 'so', 'but' or 'because', between them.

You create a comma splice when there is no linking word, which is considered bad punctuation.

Do	Don't
I came out to Massey to check my timetable, and I went to my lecture as well.	I came out to Massey to check my timetable, I went to my lecture as well.
I tried to get some milk, but the dairy had sold out.	I tried to get some milk, the dairy had sold out.

It is not always necessary to put a comma before some linking words when both sentences are simple and short. For example:

I met my friend and we went to our lecture.

How to spot a comma splice

If you can replace the comma with a full stop, you need to add a linking word, or you will have a comma splice. You can also change the comma to a full stop, a semicolon or (sometimes) a colon.

Adding extra information to a sentence

Use commas when adding extra information to a basic sentence.

If you add the extra information at the start or the end of a sentence, you only need 1 comma. For example:

However, I got some at the supermarket.
In the end, I borrowed some off my flatmate.
The baby went to sleep at dawn, to his parents' relief.
I borrowed some socks off my flatmate, the generous chap.

However, if you add the extra information to the middle of a sentence, you must put commas on either side. For example:

The baby, who had cried all night, went to sleep at dawn.
My only transport, a brand-new mountain bike, was stolen yesterday.

You could use brackets or dashes instead of commas. This is especially useful when the extra information has commas. You don't want to confuse the reader about where the extra information begins or ends.

How to tell the difference between necessary information and extra information

The extra information from the baby example above (in bold) cannot stand alone as a sentence – 'who had cried all night'.

If you remove the extra information, the rest of the sentence can stand alone – 'The baby went to sleep at dawn'.

Listing items in a series

Use commas between items in a list:

I am studying German, English, Philosophy, and History.
Whether you are singing, playing an instrument or dancing, expressing yourself with music is relaxing and energising.

If the distinct items are particularly long or there are commas within 1 item, use semicolons instead of commas to separate them.

Example

There are many things on my to-do list. I need to run down to the bank to cash my cheque before 4:30pm; pick up my clothes from the drycleaner, unless they haven't finished cleaning them yet; and take the car to a car wash.

Style guides differ on the need for a comma before the final item in a list.

I am studying German, English, Philosophy, and History.
I am studying German, English, Philosophy and History.

Oxford/Serial Comma

This final comma is called the Serial Comma or Oxford Comma. If you've been asked to use a particular style guide, make sure you know and follow the rules regarding this type of punctuation. For example, the serial comma should be included if you are following APA Style.

APA referencing style

APA Style – Serial commas

If you have not been asked to follow a particular style guide, choose 1 approach and remain consistent throughout your writing.

Separating addresses and large numbers

When writing addresses or large numbers, use commas to avoid confusion. For example:

235B Ponsonby Road North, Auckland
NZ$3,000,000

Other punctuation

Semicolon ;

There are only 2 uses for the semicolon.

To separate 2 sentences that are closely related or which reflect each other.
To separate list items that are particularly long or have commas within the items:

Examples

We all enjoy our flat; it has a great atmosphere.

There are the benefits of sharing; there are also the disadvantages of the lack of privacy.

How to make sure you are using the semicolon correctly

If you separate 2 sentences (the first use), you should be able to replace the semicolon with a full stop:

Examples

Incorrect: We all enjoy our flat. And it has a great atmosphere.

Correct: We all enjoy our flat. It has a great atmosphere.

Semicolons are often the fastest solution to a comma splice, because you can use them between 2 full sentences without needing a connecting word such as 'and', 'so' and 'but'.

For more about comma splices, refer to the information on joining 2 sentences with a linking word in the Commas section above.

Colon :

Use a colon to introduce something. That something can be a single word or it can be a full sentence, but whatever comes after the colon should explain, illustrate or resolve what comes before the colon.

Examples

If you don't plan your assignment, you're setting yourself up for one thing: failure.

Every author needs to identify with their characters: they need to care about them like children.

When using a colon this way, the words before it should form a full sentence – they should be able to stand independently.

Examples

Incorrect: I will bring: chips, dip and beer.

Correct: I will bring the following items: chips, dip and beer.

If the words before the colon do not form a complete sentence, remove the colon.

Example

Correct: I will bring chips, dip and beer.

Colons introduce quotations or lists or separate a title and a subtitle.

Examples

The theory was developed by Kozlov (1999, p. 22): "The optimum use of the available resources is best described using an adapted form of Disbursement Theory."
You need only a few basic ingredients to make scones: flour, baking powder, butter and milk.
'Cell and molecular biology: Concepts and experiments'

You can use a colon to correct a comma splice, but only if the first sentence introduces the second sentence.

For more about comma splices, refer to the information on joining 2 sentences with a linking word in the Commas section above.

Brackets ()

Use brackets, also known as parentheses, to mark off information that is relevant, but is not crucial to the sentence.

Examples

My mother worked for a legal firm (which has since been sold) on the corner of Ash Street.
The landlord is always coming around (to check up, we suspect), so we are looking for another flat.

You can also mark off information using dashes or commas.

Dash –

Use dashes to mark off information which is relevant but not crucial to the sentence. Dashes can give more emphasis to the extra information, but they can make your writing choppy if you use them too much.

Examples

We take turns – at least we try to – at shopping and cooking.
We all got there eventually – and then it was time to leave.

If you add information in the middle of a sentence, you must have dashes on both sides.

Note: the dash is longer than the hyphen. In academic writing, the dash usually has a space on each side. However, if you are using the APA referencing style, do not include a space before or after a dash.

APA referencing style

Hyphen -

Use a hyphen to connect 2 words where there might otherwise be confusion.

With a hyphen	Without a hyphen
A Dutch-cheese importer is anyone who imports Dutch cheese.	A Dutch cheese importer is a Dutch person who imports any sort of cheese.
A small-arms retailer will sell you a handgun (small arms).	A small arms retailer is a short (small) person who sells a wide range of guns (arms).

Note: the hyphen is shorter than the dash. In academic writing, the hyphen has no spaces on either side.

Ellipsis ...

The ellipsis indicates that something has been left out of a quotation deliberately, to make it easier to read or to highlight only the main points.

Most referencing styles use ellipses when something has been omitted from the middle of a quotation, not the start or end.

Example

According to Rice (1991, p. 17), “management … is a major component” of any good business.

You will sometimes see an ellipsis at the end of a sentence to indicate trailing off. This is inappropriate for academic writing.

Sentence structure

Generally, there are 3 types of sentences: simple, compound and complex.

Simple sentences

A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb. It expresses one idea or thought. Simple sentences may contain a compound subject and/or a compound verb.

Examples

John is driving.
Subject – verb: There is 1 subject and 1 verb

John is driving and texting.
Subject – compound verb: There is 1 subject and 2 verbs

John and Alex are walking.
Compound subject-verb: There are 2 subjects and 1 verb

John and Alex are walking and talking.
Compound subject -compound verb: There are 2 subjects and 2 verbs

Simple sentences do not usually have commas.

Compound sentences

A compound sentence is made up of 2 independent clauses. These 2 independent clauses are combined or joined using a coordinating conjunction.

Coordinating conjunctions

There are 7 coordinating conjunctions:

'For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so'

A comma is sometimes used to join the 2 independent clauses and is inserted before the conjunction.

Examples

Sarah wanted to go swimming, but she hurt her ankle.

I was feeling thirsty, so I bought a drink from the shop.

The students were running and jumping all over the school field.

Example linking 2 independent clauses

I like studying last minute before an exam, yet I know it is not a good idea.

Complex sentences

A complex sentence has 1 independent clause and at least 1 dependent clause. A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but it can’t stand alone because it doesn’t include a complete idea or thought. It also begins with a subordinator.

Examples of subordinators: while, when, until, unless, if, since, because, even though, although, after, so that, like, as, whenever, before.

Examples

Alex wants to eat before playing football.

Before playing football, Alex wants to eat.

The concert was cancelled because there was a snowstorm.

Because there was a snowstorm, the concert was cancelled.

Note: The dependent clause is italicised. There is no comma if the independent clause is placed first.

Sentence fragments

Sentence fragments are not full sentences: they cannot stand on their own. For example:

In the first room on the left.
During the Meiji Restoration period.
Such as political, economic and legal implications.
Which is why I don't eat beef.
Leaving town tonight.
Also the last thing they would expect.
As a significant global power.

Sentence fragments are most common in speech and often used in fiction, but are not appropriate for academic writing.

Identifying sentence fragments

Sentence fragments are missing up to 2 essential pieces of information:

the person or thing doing something (the subject)
the action (the verb)

The subject of a sentence is the person or thing doing an action or being in a state:

King Charles III visited Australia in 2024.
I finished the assignment at 2 am.
Her results demonstrated that pitchblende contained a substance previously unknown to science.
He was late by 40 minutes.

The verb is the action or act of being in a state:

King Charles III visited Australia in 2024.
I finished the assignment at 2 am.
Her results demonstrated that pitchblende contained a substance previously unknown to science.
He was late by 40 minutes.

Sentence fragments do not have a subject and/or main verb.

Examples

Incorrect: In the first room on the left.
Correct: The reception area was in the first room on the left

Incorrect: During the Meiji Restoration period.
Correct: During the Meiji Restoration period, Japan emerged as a significant global power.

Correcting sentence fragments

Sentence fragments frequently begin with a linking word or a verb (action) ending in -ing:

In the first room on the left.
During the Meiji Restoration period.
Such as political, economic and legal implications.
Which is why I don't eat beef.
Leaving town tonight.
Also the last thing they would expect.
As a significant global power

This is often because they follow a full sentence and use the linking word to connect the 2 fragment sentences.

Example

Incorrect: I found the reception area. In the first room on the left.
Correct: I found the reception area in the first room on the left.

Sometimes, removing the full stop is enough. In most cases, replace the full stop with a comma.

Example

Incorrect: A PESTLE analysis shows many significant factors. Such as political, economic and legal implications.
Correct: A PESTLE analysis shows many significant factors, such as political, economic and legal implications.

In the example above, the sentence fragment added extra information to the sentence, so it is necessary to include a comma.

Punctuation: Commas

If there is no other full sentence that the sentence fragment can link to, add the missing subject and/or verb to correct the sentence fragment:

I am leaving town tonight.
This is also the last thing they would expect.

Students on campus share a thought from a study guide.

Proofreading

Proofread assignments many times before submitting.

Read your writing out loud. Hearing it helps identify mistakes. We become so familiar with our writing that we miss errors. Read from the perspective of the reader rather than the writer.

Consider the clarity of your writing – will someone without the same knowledge understand it?

Ask a friend to review your work before the final submission.

Spelling

New Zealand spelling uses British English rather than American English. For example:

colour not color
realising not realizing
centre not center.

American vs British spelling

Don't rely only on spellcheck – though most software has a spellcheck function, spellcheck can miss words which are spelt correctly but used incorrectly. For example, 'I sea the dog' instead of 'I see the dog'. Incorrect words may not be identified if they have been added to the software dictionary.

Enable the Editor function in Word to check for this and other kinds of spelling errors, such as words that have been:

put together incorrectly – for example: alot, infront
split in 2 – for example: to gether, with out
misspelt – for example: favrit, prehaps, absolutly, begining, geting, comeing.

Check grammar, spelling and more in Microsoft Word

Spelling tips

The -able, -ible suffix rule

Remember, this is English, so there are always exceptions!

Usually if the root word is a complete word, it ends in ‘able.’ For example 'fashion' and 'fashionable.'

Examples – root word is a complete word

laughable
comfortable
dependable
breakable.

Usually if the root word ends in an ‘e’, the ‘e’ is removed and ‘able’ or ‘ible’ is added. For example, 'advise' and 'advisable'.

Examples – root word ends with 'e'

valuable
debatable
desirable
collapsible
defensible
responsible.

Usually if the root word is not a complete word, it ends in ‘ible,’ for example 'possible.' 'Poss' is not a complete word on its own.

Examples – root word is not a complete word

horrible
terrible
edible
incredible
flexible
invisible.

Words ending in 'y' usually change the 'y' to an 'i' and then add '-able'

Examples – root word ends with 'y'

reliable
justifiable.

Usually if the root word is complete and ends in 't', '-ible' is added.

Examples – root word ends with 't'

corruptible
contemptible
destructible.

Some exceptions to the -able, -ible suffix rule

Exceptions to the rule include:

likeable
sizeable
nameable.

The ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’ not-really-true rule

You may have heard of the ‘i before e except after c’ rule. Unfortunately, there are so many exceptions to this rule, that it is not a very true or helpful rule. A variation of this rule: ‘i before e except after c or when sounded as ‘a’ as in neighbour and weigh’ is a little more accurate but of course, there are still exceptions including 'conceive', 'receipt', 'ceiling', 'species', 'seize', 'weigh' and 'weird.'

Merriam-Webster offers a much longer but more accurate rhyme, while noting that because English developed from so many different sources, there are still exceptions.

In reality, there is only one useful spelling rule to remember: Use the spell check function in your word processing software.

American vs NZ and British spelling

Learn about the differences in spelling and get tips to avoid spelling errors in your next assignment.

Commonly confused words

Avoid spelling mistakes in your writing by learning about word pairs and words often confused because of their close spelling.