Critical analysis online tutorial
This tutorial explains how to evaluate evidence and reasons supporting an argument and adopting a critical position.
Skills for constructing an argument
Use your critical thinking and reading skills to identify errors or flaws in logic and construct an argument for academic writing.
Critical thinking
Critical thinking is one of the most important skills to learn at university.
Critical thinking involves actively considering the quality of ideas and information. It requires analysis and evaluation and can be applied equally to others' ideas and your own. It's a set of tools used to consider the ideas presented by other people and to show your own ideas clearly and judiciously.
Central to critical thinking is the ability to think outside a piece of writing: not only understanding the writer's argument but deciding:
- whether the argument is valid or not
- whether the evidence and discussion given support the argument
- how the argument fits into the broader context.
Critical thinking has been described as the ability to 'read between the lines,' both when reading the work of others and when writing your own, which includes, but isn't limited to, finding potential flaws in an argument.
Source: Critical thinking skills: Developing effective analysis and argument (Massey Library login required)
Critical reading
Critical reading is the process of reading that goes beyond just understanding a text.
Critical reading involves:
- Carefully considering and evaluating the reading.
- Identifying the reading's strengths and implications.
- Identifying the reading's weaknesses and flaws.
- Looking at the 'big picture' and deciding how the reading fits into the greater academic context – understandings presented in other books and articles on the topic.
In brief, you're actively responding to the reading. Critical reading is important at all stages of academic study. But it is particularly important when writing an article critique or a literature review.
Critical reading often involves asking questions about the reading. In particular, you're examining the strengths and weaknesses of the reading's argument.
To do this, you need to consider 1 or more of the following:
- the reading's background
- its purpose
- overall conclusion (claim)
- the evidence used in the reading
- the logical connections between the claim and the evidence
- the reading's balance
- its limitations
- how it relates to other sources and research
- how the research was conducted if the reading is based on research.
Each of these can affect how 'strong' the argument is or how convincing it is.
Background
Background Before you consider the argument of a reading, you should build up a background picture of the reading.
Who is the author?
You cannot evaluate credibility or bias based solely on an author’s qualifications, as bias may also be shaped by additional factors, including disciplinary norms and intersecting aspects of identity such as gender, ethnicity and sexuality. Therefore, while there are degrees of bias, often it is not possible to achieve total objectivity. Nevertheless, it can be useful to evaluate authors for potential conflicts of interest.
Is the author affiliated with a university, the government, or an organisation with a commercial interest?
What type of source is this?
As with the author, the type of reading can give you an idea of potential bias and the quality or applicability of the information. Is this an academic source? Is it trying to convince you of something or sell something?
- Periodical articles: Is this a scholarly journal, a magazine or a newspaper?
- Books: Is this from an academic publisher or a commercial publisher?
- Websites: Is the publishing organisation clearly identified?
- Check the URL: Is it governmental (URL ending in .govt.nz or .gov), academic (URL ending in .ac, .ac.nz or .edu), commercial (URL ending in .co.nz or .com) or an organisation (URL ending in .org or .org.nz)?
Who's the audience?
The reading may be organised and written differently or have different goals depending on the intended audience.
Is it aimed at:
- Academics and researchers?
- People in the industry?
- The general public?
When was it written?
It's better to use up-to-date information. Something believed to be true in 1982 may have been disproved or improved since then.
A good rule of thumb for academic sources is to find sources from the last 10 years.
Purpose
Purpose Getting the 'big picture' of the reading is essential so you can see how all the pieces fit together.
What's the main claim of the reading?
The reading's main claim or argument is the point it's trying to prove. The claim of a reading is often a single statement: the thesis statement. This statement is usually in the abstract, the introduction and (or) the conclusion of the article.
- Is the main conclusion clear?
- Does the evidence lead to this conclusion?
What are the implications of the claim?
It's good to think about the consequences and applications of the argument, as this may uncover particular strengths or further flaws.
- Are the applications practical or meaningful?
- What are the advantages and disadvantages of the applications?
- What are the costs and benefits of the applications?
How's the reading structured?
The structure of the reading will give you an idea of which points are most important and which points support the conclusion. Look at:
- headings
- subheadings
- tables and (or) figures
- the introduction.
You may find drawing a map or diagram of the reading's structure helpful.
Evidence
Evidence It's essential to consider the quality of the evidence in the reading, as this directly relates to the usefulness of the reading.
Is the evidence fact, research, opinion or personal experience?
- Objective facts are generally acceptable.
- Information obtained through research is convincing as long as the methodology is appropriate.
- Opinions can easily be contradicted by an alternative opinion. They're more likely to be biased.
- Personal experience may not apply to other cases and, therefore, is not easily generalised. However, qualitative methods such as autoethnography, in which the researcher draws upon their personal experience, may be a legitimate means of contesting established knowledge in some fields.
Is the evidence accurate?
- Does the evidence agree with other sources?
- If not, does it engage with alternative positions and provide a convincing counter-argument?
Is the evidence relevant to the conclusion?
- Does the evidence connect to the reading's conclusion?
- Is it enough to support the argument?
- Is the evidence convincing?
Is the theory appropriate for this topic?
Many readings rely on particular theories or models to make their argument.
- Is the theory the best fit for this topic?
- Is the theory properly interpreted and explained in the reading?
- Does the theory explain the entire conclusion or only part of it?
- Are there parts of the conclusion that are not explained by the theory?
Methodology
Methodology If the reading is based on any research, for example, a survey, experiment or case study, it's important to consider how it was conducted because this can affect the accuracy of the reported findings.
Is the research qualitative or quantitative?
- Quantitative research involves measuring (quantifying) and analysing specific numerical or statistical data. It uses mathematical models to interpret data. Studies are designed so that mathematical models can be easily applied to research contexts using experiments and surveys.
- Qualitative research involves the examination, analysis and interpretation of observations or accounts of events to identify themes, underlying meanings and patterns. This approach does not use mathematical models but rather interviews, case studies and the analysis of written documents.
Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages, but the type of research will affect the findings. Is this type of research appropriate for this topic?
What was the range or sample size of the research?
The wider the range or sample size of the research, the more the findings can be generalised.
- If the research is a survey or questionnaire, how many participants were there?
- Did the participants come from different cultural or social backgrounds?
- Were the participants different ages, occupations, genders, ethnic groups or nationalities?
Is the research falsifiable?
Could other research prove this research wrong? This isn't asking whether the research is false but whether it's possible to test its accuracy. If it's impossible to prove a claim wrong, it's also impossible to prove a claim right. The claim is instead a matter of faith.
Is the research replicable?
If someone else conducted similar research using these methods, would they have similar results? If it's impossible to repeat research, it's also impossible to test it.
Are there better methods?
Were there other methods that may be more effective, scientific, reliable, culturally sensitive or practical? Why weren't they used?
Logic
Logic When reading critically, it's important to examine the chain of reasoning used by the author, as any gaps or problems can undermine the validity of the argument.
Are the key terms defined?
Definitions are an important part of academic study. Terminology often varies between topics and between authors.
- Is each term properly defined?
- Are there any terms that could have several different interpretations?
Does the logic flow?
Does every point follow on from the last? If there's a gap between 2 ideas, this could be a 'leap of faith' that undermines the overall conclusion.
Are there any flaws in the reasoning?
Is the reasoning logically sound? Some arguments are weak because they rely on faulty logic – often referred to as logical fallacies.
Balance
Balance To read critically, consider whether the argument is appropriately balanced, looking at the issue or problem from relevant perspectives.
Do you have questions that are unanswered in the reading?
- What details are missing?
- Are there any claims that seem unusual or extraordinary? You should pay attention to the parts of the argument that seem controversial, as there are likely other explanations.
Is the reading biased?
- Is the reading trying to convince you of something? Why?
- Did the reading push one point of view to the exclusion of others?
What other perspectives are there on this issue?
Readings are often written from 1 perspective. What other ways can you look at this topic?
Try, for example, a PESTLE analysis which examines the political, economic, sociological, technological, legal and environmental perspectives and implications.
Reports: analysing issues, events or theories – PESTLE analysis
Did the reading present a counter-argument?
A reading that offers several perspectives is more balanced, and a strong argument should usually consider and argue against counter-arguments.
Are you aware of any counter-arguments that exist but weren't discussed? This may be a sign of a weaker argument.
Limitations
Limitations
What does the argument assume?
Some readings will identify their premises, so if an premise is later proven false, it's clear whether the argument is valid or not.
Does the reading unidentified premises? Hidden premises may weaken the argument.
What are the limitations of the theory?
Some theories or principles only apply in certain situations. If a theory is applied outside those situations, it may weaken the argument.
Other sources
Other sources No reading exists in isolation. Consider how the reading fits into the 'bigger picture' of the larger academic context.
How does this reading relate to other readings?
If the reading disagrees with something from other readings, your textbook or the lecturer, it may be incorrect. It may also be a controversial or debatable argument, or this reading may be discussing the argument from a different perspective.
Are there competing theories with better explanations for the evidence?
When there's more than one way to explain evidence, you must carefully evaluate the plausibility of each explanation.
Is there more up-to-date research that could disagree with the findings or improve them?
Knowledge is developed in academia by improving on (or disproving) previous findings, so you should consider whether the reading has the most up-to-date understanding of the topic.
What may have changed since the reading was written?
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