Academic writing should avoid making assumptions or value judgements about anyone based on gender. These can cloud the objectivity of your writing. Many of these assumptions are implicit within language, so it's necessary to avoid terms that inappropriately or irrelevantly emphasise, discriminate, trivialise or homogenise gender, sexual orientation, racial and ethnic identity, age, diverse needs or socio-economic background.
Academic writing is precise, so it's important to be specific, inclusive and respectful when describing someone.
General guidelines for bias-free language
Sometimes it's necessary to focus on aspects of a person’s identity. For example, if you're researching attitudes toward gay women in the 19th century, it would be necessary to discuss sexual orientation and gender. It's often unnecessary or irrelevant, however, to mention details about gender, sexual orientation, racial and ethnic identity, age or diverse needs.
The overall guiding principle for inclusive, unbiased language is to describe people in a respectful way that recognises their humanity, dignity and worth. Avoid stereotypes and pejorative, negative, condescending or 'othering' language. Words that describe identity traits evolve constantly. Make sure you use current terms and take a little time to learn the preferred terms.
Avoid using irrelevant words or phrases
Example
I went to a function for the celebrated lady novelist.
The owners, who are a lesbian couple, say they have struggled with the restrictions on crowd numbers.
No one would say: I went to a function for the celebrated man novelist. This gender identification may imply that the novelist is a dilettante – a woman who writes for an elegant hobby rather than as a serious career. If you need to identify her further, use her name: I went to a function for the celebrated novelist Keri Hulme.
When to be specific
It's important to be specific when necessary. For example, when discussing age, give exact ages or ranges. When writing about people with diverse needs, you should usually name the need rather than a general issue or category of condition – for example, people with ADHD versus people with learning issues. Be specific with racial or ethnic groups – for example, Chinese Americans versus Asian Americans. Also, be specific with sexual orientation, for example, gay women versus gay.
Use respectful descriptors
It's respectful to use the descriptors people use to self-describe – this might not be appropriate if someone uses stigmatising or pejorative language to describe themselves. In this situation, do not use the self-described pejorative language. Use a more unbiased and inclusive term. Language evolves, and agreement about what's the preferred term doesn't always happen. You might need to note this in your writing.
Avoid biased language
Make sure you don't inadvertently use biased language by assuming one group is normal or standard, then compare this group with other groups. For example, a false hierarchy is created when a minority group is compared with the general public or against a 'normal' group – this implies the minority group is marginal to society or abnormal.
Sexual orientation and gender
Sexual orientation refers to the degree and direction of sexual and emotional attraction. Use sexual orientation rather than sexual preference when describing someone’s sexual identity.
Sexual orientation involves terms that can evolve over time. It's important to take a little time to familiarise yourself with current terms so you can write with respect and inclusivity. If possible and appropriate, use the same terms a person uses to describe themselves. It's generally a good idea to clearly define what's meant by the terms used in your writing. It's also important to be specific. For example, gay can be applied to all genders to refer to same-sex attraction or, more narrowly, to just men. Be specific about what group you're referring to.
Gender
Gender
Gender is a personal identity thread and a construct specific to a culture. It's distinct from sex, which refers to biological traits. It's also distinct from sexual orientation, which refers to the degree and gendered direction of sexual and emotional attraction.
Be specific about gender identity. Cisgender refers to people whose biological sex assigned at birth aligns with their gender identity. Transgender refers to people whose biological sex assigned at birth does not align with their gender identity. Some transgender people have a binary gender, such as man or woman, or may identify as non-binary or gender-fluid.
In general, avoid using males and females as nouns. Instead, use men and women or gender-appropriate words.
Pronouns
Pronouns
While 'he' has been used historically as a generic term, it should be avoided. 'He or she' is a better alternative, but it can sound awkward:
Example
If a student finds that he or she has problems with his or her report, he or she should ask his or her lecturer for help before he or she gets thoroughly confused.
If you read in a course handout 'every student should attend his classes,' the writer is either assuming that none of the students are women or that those who are will not mind being thought of as male. Neither assumption is safe.
A better option is to use the plural pronoun 'they':
Example
If students find that they have problems with their reports, they should ask their lecturers for help before they get thoroughly confused.
Increasingly, however, 'they' is being used as a pronoun so care must be taken to avoid confusion. An explanatory footnote may be appropriate in some cases.
Additional pronouns such as ze/zir/zirs and xe/xem/xyrs are becoming more commonly used. Some individuals may use multiple sets of pronouns, known as rolling pronouns, or they might prefer not to use pronouns at all and instead go by their name. When interacting with individuals, it’s always best to ask what pronouns they use and to respect their preferences.
In te reo Māori, 'ia' is a gender-neutral pronoun used for all genders, meaning 'he', 'she' or 'they'.
Compound words
Compound words
Be cautious with words and phrases compounded with man. Like 'he', 'man' was used in a generic sense, but there are now more appropriate words to use.
| Do | Don't |
|---|---|
| Astronaut | Spaceman |
| People, humanity | Mankind |
| Seller, sales representative | Salesman |
The bias may not be intentional, such as using 'chairman' instead of 'chair' or 'housewife' instead of 'homemaker'. However, it's important to avoid alienating or insulting the audience.
Diminutives
Diminutives
Avoid using words which use a diminutive to imply female.
| Do | Don't |
|---|---|
| Usher | Usherette |
| Poet | Poetess |
Neither ushers nor poets are inherently male or female.
Other words
Other words
Use woman and women rather than lady and ladies.
Ensure that paired words are equal – instead of man and wife, use either man and woman or husband and wife.
Racial and ethnic identity
Race refers to physical differences considered socially significant and ascribed meaning within a particular culture or time. For example, Pākehā, Māori, African American, Black, White, Asian, Aboriginal. Ethnicity refers to shared identity threads and cultural traits in or from a specific geographic region. For example, language, religious belief, ancestry, customs.
Be clear about whether you're talking about race or ethnicity. Race is a cultural construct, so take care not to impose racial labels on ethnic groups. Be as specific as possible, for example, Japanese American versus Asian American. It's most respectful to use the labels used by people themselves. However, this might not be appropriate if someone self-describes with pejorative or denigratory terms.
Capitalise both racial and ethnic groups as they're proper nouns. Capitalise the words Indigenous and Indigenous People, too. Don't hyphenate multiword terms.
Age
Age is often used to describe participants in the Methods section of a research paper. As with other descriptors, consider whether it's necessary to mention age. Consider whether gendered age descriptors, for example, girl and boy, are inclusive and unbiased. Use 'older persons', 'older patients' or 'people 65 years and older'. Avoid using the terms 'senior citizens' or 'elderly'. They can imply a stereotype or suggest this group is not part of society but set apart.
When describing older people, don't use stigmatising or negative language that suggests age is a kind of disability or undesirable condition.
Diverse needs
People with diverse needs, often referred to as having disabilities, represent a language area that is continually evolving. It is important to take a little time to familiarise yourself with current terms so you can write with respect and inclusivity. Diverse needs encompass a wide range of groups, each identifying with specific terms to describe their unique experiences and requirements. If possible and appropriate, use the same terms a person uses to self-describe. However, this might not be appropriate if someone self-describes with pejorative or denigratory terms.
It's generally a good idea to clearly define what is meant by the terms used in your writing, and it's important to be specific. Avoid euphemisms, for example, special needs, physically challenged and handi-capable, as many people with diverse needs consider this patronising.
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