Academic writing often draws on the ideas and research of sources such as books, journal articles and websites. You may use these sources to support your ideas or to discuss, analyse or critique other sources.
Referencing tells the reader where ideas from other sources have been used in an assignment. Accurate referencing:
- shows the reader that you can find and use sources to create a solid argument
- properly credits the originators of ideas, theories and research findings
- shows the reader how your argument relates to the big picture.
Failing to acknowledge sources is plagiarism, which can carry significant academic penalties. Fortunately, plagiarism is easy to avoid by following a few basic principles.
Using generative artificial intelligence (AI)
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How to reference
Learn how to format in-text citations and reference lists using the APA, MLA and Chicago styles and less commonly used styles.
APA style
Learn how to format in-text citations and reference lists in the 7th edition of the American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style.
Chicago style
Learn how to format in-text citations, notes and bibliographies in the 18th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style referencing style.
MLA style
Learn how to format in-text citations and the works cited lists in the 9th edition of the referencing style of the Modern Language Association (MLA).
Other referencing styles
Referencing information for the Harvard style, legal citations, New Zealand Vet Journal and Vancouver style.
How to reference tutorial
Watch this online tutorial to learn how to reference according to APA guidelines. This 3-part tutorial covers when to include citations, how to write citations using APA Style and how to format an APA reference list.
APA is the most common referencing style used at Massey.
What and when to reference
Whenever an assignment uses words, facts, ideas, theories, arguments or interpretations from other sources, you must reference those sources. Referencing is needed when:
- Quoting – you have copied words exactly from a book, article or other source.
- Paraphrasing and summarising – you have used an idea or fact from an outside source, even if you haven't used their exact wording.
The only exception is when the information is common knowledge, which is information anyone is likely to know. If you are uncertain whether to reference something, it's better to reference it than not.
Quoting and paraphrasing
Your writing should show how and where you have drawn on literature to support your point. You must also ensure that your writing connects with the literature. The best assignments move fluidly between the outside evidence and your interpretations, explanations, arguments or evaluations – integrating the sources within the assignment.
There are 3 main methods for incorporating the ideas and research of other authors into your document:
- Quoting: copying the source information word for word.
- Paraphrasing: putting the source information into other words and phrases.
- Summarising: creating a shortened version of the source information.
Whenever you use an outside source – whether you have quoted it directly, paraphrased it or summarised it – you must always do 2 things:
- Connect it with the writing around it.
- Credit the original author.
Quotations
Learn when to use quotes and how to integrate them into your writing.
Paraphrasing & summarising
Learn how to summarise and paraphrase source information for academic writing.
Common knowledge
Common knowledge refers to facts so widely known it's unnecessary to reference them. Common knowledge is general knowledge.
For example, the following points are common knowledge in New Zealand:
- Beijing is the capital of China.
- Wellington is the capital of New Zealand.
- Te Tiriti o Waitangi was signed in 1840.
- Māori are the indigenous people of New Zealand.
These facts are so widely known that it's unnecessary to provide a source to support them.
Common knowledge may vary from country to country. In Argentina, for example, the signing date of Te Tiriti o Waitangi may not be widely known.
Common knowledge may also vary from discipline to discipline. For example, what is common knowledge in sociology may not be common knowledge in psychology. Some disciplines, such as in the sciences, incorporate facts into common knowledge faster than others. As you develop familiarity with a discipline, you'll become more aware of what is common knowledge and what is not.
Distinguishing common knowledge
You can identify common knowledge by considering 2 important questions:
- Is the fact widely known?
- Is the fact disputed by anyone?
A widely known fact will appear in several different sources, particularly general reference sources like encyclopaedias or dictionaries.
If there's academic disagreement about a fact, it should not be treated as common knowledge. Likewise, interpretations of facts can be different between different sources, so the interpretation is not common knowledge.
Referencing common knowledge
Common knowledge doesn't need to be referenced. Most academic writing, however, doesn't focus on common knowledge. Instead, different interpretations and applications of facts and concepts are discussed and these need to be referenced appropriately.
Citations and references
There are 2 elements used in referencing:
- A citation in the text of the assignment, also known as in-text citations.
- An entry in a reference list, also known as list of works cited, at the end of the assignment.
Citations
The citation contains enough detail for the reader to find the source in the reference list. These details are usually the name of the source's author and the year the source was published. In some reference styles, a footnote is used instead of an in-text citation.
Example
When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather demographic information about the users (Lazar, 2006).
This example (Lazar, 2006) tells the reader that this information has come from a source written by Lazar, which was published in 2006. The citation is a signpost pointing the reader to the reference list.
Reference list
The reference list appears at the end of your assignment document. It lists all the sources you used and cited in your assignment. It's usually in alphabetical order according to the names of the authors. Each entry in the reference list contains detailed information about 1 source. These details usually include the author's name, the year of publication, the title of the source and source location details, for example, publisher's name, URL.
Every entry in a reference list has a hanging indent. Use single-line spacing in the reference list with an empty line between each entry.
Example in APA Style 7th edition
References
Durie, M. (2003). Ngā kāhui pou: Launching Māori futures. Huia.
Hazledine, T., & Quiggan, J. (2006). Public policy in Australia and New Zealand: The new global context. Australian Journal of Political Science, 41(2), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361140600672394
Lazar, J. (2006). Web usability: A user-centered design approach. Pearson Addison Wesley.
Ministry for Primary Industries. (2012). Food safety. https://www.mpi.govt.nz/food-safety
These details help the reader to find these sources in a library or online.
Reference list versus bibliography
Reference lists contain a complete list of all the sources you have cited directly in a document. That means that if there are in-text citations for a source, there is a reference list entry and vice versa.
Bibliographies contain all the sources you have used, whether they have been directly cited or not. A bibliography includes sources you have used to generate ideas or read around a topic but have not referred to directly in the body of the document.
Note: in MLA style, a reference list is known as a list of works cited or works cited.
Which format to use
For most assignments at Massey, you will be expected to provide only a reference list. If you have used any source in your assignment, you must say where you have used it by citing it directly.
Some assignments may require a reference list and a bibliography or a bibliography instead of a reference list. You will find instructions in your course materials.
Some referencing styles, for example, Oxford Style, always use a bibliography rather than a reference list.
Check with your lecturer if you're unsure which format they want you to use.
Annotated bibliographies
An annotated bibliography is an assignment type that involves a list of sources and a summary and evaluation of each source's content and purpose.
In publications
Books and other publications often distinguish between selected bibliographies and full bibliographies. Selected bibliographies only list a few of the most important works cited. Full bibliographies list every work cited and potentially other relevant sources.
Referencing styles
Referencing is a formal system: there are rules and standards to follow when formatting citations and references. Many students find referencing quite intimidating at first. Like any skill, it takes time and patience to learn.
APA style, a format created by the American Psychological Association, is the most common referencing style used at Massey University.
Other styles include MLA, Oxford, Harvard and Chicago styles. These styles are subtly different. Each department may ask you to use a different style. Oxford style, for example, uses footnotes instead of in-text citations and a bibliography instead of a reference list.
APA Style – American Psychological Association website
MLA Style – Modern Language Association website
Identifying sources
To reference material, you need to identify the source type: is it a book, a journal or something else?
Learn about the distinguishing characteristics of some of these different source types.
Books
Books are longer works on a particular subject or set of topics. Most books are written by 1 person or a small group of people. But there are exceptions – edited books, conference proceedings, encyclopedias and dictionaries.
Edited books and anthologies
Edited books and anthologies are books containing writing by several different authors. Typically, a different author or authors write each chapter and a named editor organises the whole collection.
To identify edited books, look at the table of contents. Each chapter or section has a different author or authors' names. Massey's library catalogue lists the editor's name instead of the author for edited books.
Reference each chapter in an edited book separately.
Conference proceedings
Conference proceedings are books that collect many different presentations and papers from an actual meeting, conference or symposium. Like edited books, a different author or authors write each chapter and a named editor organises the whole collection.
Published conference proceedings look similar to edited books but usually have the name of the meeting in the title, for example, Proceedings of the IASTED International Conference on Information and Knowledge Sharing.
As with edited books, reference each chapter or section separately.
Encyclopedias and dictionaries
Encyclopedias and dictionaries are collections of several small articles or definitions, often on a single topic. They usually have 'encyclopaedia' or 'dictionary' somewhere in the title, for example, Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, The Oxford English Dictionary.
As with edited books, you can reference specific entries separately.
Journals
Journals are a collection of articles published on a particular subject, like a magazine or newspaper. The target audience of a journal is usually academic, professional or technical. Journals represent the cutting edge of research in a field. Journals are usually the first to feature pioneering studies and analyses.
Journals differ from magazines in several ways
| Journals | Magazines |
|---|---|
|
Academic, professional or technical audience. May use a lot of jargon. |
General audience. Easy to read. |
| No (or very minimal) advertising. | Lots of advertisements. |
| Articles are in-depth and contain a thorough reference list. | Articles provide broad but not necessarily deep coverage. |
| Peer-reviewed. | Not usually peer-reviewed. |
This last difference is important. Peer review means that experts (usually academics) have checked each article before publication to ensure no inaccuracies.
Journal articles are more comprehensive and useful than general magazine articles.
Researching for your assignment: Types of academic source
Locating journal articles
Many academic journals are available online. Either from Massey University's Discover database or through the library's article databases.
Referencing journal articles
When referencing journal articles, reference them individually.
Grey literature and other material
Grey literature is a type of material produced by government departments, corporations and other organisations that has not been published in book or journal form. It includes technical and research reports, annual reports, brochures and fact sheets, press releases and white papers.
Sometimes, these sources are less likely to be found in a library. For example, institutional reports, brochures and press releases. This type of material is sometimes more difficult to access than books or journal articles and less likely to be useful for academic assignments.
Web pages, newspapers, magazines, reports and study material
Web pages
Web pages are online documents found on the World Wide Web. Only choose this type if there's no more specific description.
Newspapers
Newspapers are daily or weekly publications that focus on news and current events.
Magazines
Magazines are periodical publications of general interest or technical articles on a particular subject.
Reports
Reports are official publications analysing an issue or situation.
Study material
Your lecturer provides study material for you to study as part of your course.
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