American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style , Ko tā te APA tāera tohutoro

APA allows a variety of fonts.

Serif fonts include 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia or normal 10-point Computer Modern (the default font for LaTeX).

Sans serif include 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial or 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode.

Be consistent with your font throughout your assignment, with the following exceptions:

• Figures: Within figures, use a sans serif font with a size between 8 and 14 points.
• Computer code: Use a monospace font such as 10-point Lucida Console or 10-point Courier New.
• Footnotes: Use the default font settings in your word processing software. The footnote font is likely to be smaller than the text font and have different line spacing. It is not necessary to change it.

Learn more about fonts on APA Style: Paper format – Font

In general, write numbers zero to nine as words and use numerals (Arabic numbers) above 10, for example, 10, 45, 232.

However, there are exceptions for using numerals under 10:

• A number immediately before a unit of measurement: 5 m, 2 kg.
• Statistical or mathematical functions: divided by 5, 95% CI [3.2, 8.4].
• Fractions (except common fractions), decimals, percentages, ratios, percentiles: 34/35, 1.7, 50%, 2:1 ratio, the 5th percentile.
• Time and date: 4 s, 7 mins, 2 days, about 3 days ago, July 4, 1:04 p.m.
• Age: 2 years old, 5-year-olds, 5-year-old-children.
• Scores and points on a scale: I got 6 on a 9-point scale.
• An exact amount of money: $5, $20 USD.
• A numeral as a numeral: the number 3 on a calculator.
• Indicating a place in a series or part of a book, table or figure if the number is after a noun: see Figure 4, book 7, chapter 6. You should use words when the number precedes a noun, for example, the tenth book in the series, the thirteenth row.

Use words to express numbers for 10 and above when:

• starting a sentence, title or heading: Forty percent of cows were treated, and the remaining 60% were not
• common fractions: one-fifth of people, half the day, two-thirds majority.

Learn more about numbers on APA Style: Mechanics of style – Numbers

An abbreviation can be a shortened form of a word. For example, 'phone' is the abbreviation of 'telephone'. An abbreviation can also be an acronym which uses the first letter of words comprising a title or phrase. For example, the acronym for Geographical Information System is GIS. Do not use full stops between letters in an acronym. For example, CIA, not C.I.A.

Consider the readers' familiarity with the abbreviation, as unfamiliar abbreviations can be confusing and undermine clarity.

Write out the name in full before using an acronym for the first time. For example, The United Nations (UN). Use square brackets in parenthetical citations. For example, (Ministry of Business, Innovation, & Employment [MBIE], 2017).

APA recommends only providing acronyms for terms you refer to more than 3 times in your document. In subsequent citations, just use the acronym and don't switch between the full term and the acronym.

Learn more about abbreviations on APA Style: Mechanics of style – Abbreviations

Words are lowercase unless there is a specific rule to capitalise them, such as the first word in a sentence or a proper noun – the specific name of people, places and things.

Names of racial and ethnic groups are proper nouns, which means they are capitalised. For example, Māori, First Nations, African-American, Asian, Pākehā.

Capitalise trade names, such as Wellbutrin and Coke, but not generic names, such as bupropion and cola.

Capitalise a job title or position when it precedes a name, for example, Dr Walker, President Lincoln.

Don't capitalise when the title or position is used alone or after a name, for example Jane, who is a doctor, the president of the company, registered nurses.

Capitalise the first letter of each word more than 3 letters in the title of a source that is part of a greater work, such as a journal article, a book chapter or a news article referred to in your text. Note this is different from how you format the title in a reference list. For example, In "Lex Aotearoa", Justice Williams.

Learn more about capitalisation on APA Style: Mechanics of style – Capitalization

APA reference lists

Use italics sparingly.

• First introducing or defining a key term or phrase: Enhanced greenhouse effect describes. Do not italicise subsequent discussion of the term or phrase.
• Referring to the title of a standalone work, such as a book, report, webpage or newspaper in-text: In the Visual history of the world. Note, this is different to how you format standalone titles in a reference list. Don't italicise titles that are part of a larger work, such as journal articles, book chapters or news articles, in the reference list.
• Citing a journal in your reference list. Italicise journal titles and the journal number but not the comma between the title and number nor the issue number. For example, Journal of Qualitative Methodology, 2(3), 34–43.
• When English letters are used as statistical symbols or algebraic variables: SD, n, 2x + 3y.
• Giving the meaning of a number on a scale: on a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 10 = strongly agree).
• Using a non-English word, phrase or abbreviation that does not appear in an English dictionary and the reader is unlikely to be familiar with: He shouted xin nian kuai le!

Learn more about italics on APA Style: Mechanics of style: Italics and quotation marks

Referencing tables and figures

APA has strict rules about crediting reproduced or copied images, figures or tables. Include a footnote and a full reference stating that permission was sought to use the table or figure.

However, this level of detail is unnecessary unless your assignment will be professionally published.

Instead, treat the image as a direct quotation. Provide a citation in the caption, with author, year and page number. The source should also have an entry in the reference list.

Formatting table and figures

Generally, your assignment instructions or course guide will tell you how to format your writing and what font and line spacing to use. If they do not, ask your lecturer or course coordinator for guidance.

Learn how to format table and figures at APA Style

Formatting tables

The descriptive title for a table goes above the table.

Place the table after the paragraph first mentioned. Smaller figures may fit on the same page, but larger ones may need to be placed at the top of the next page.

Number each table with an Arabic number in bold in the order first mentioned in your text. For example, Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3. Do not refer to a table by its position relative to the text, for example, 'the table below,' or its page number, for example, 'the table on page 12'. Do not use suffix letters such as Table 5a, Table 5b.

The title should be descriptive but not too long. Put the title in italics and capitalise the first letter of each major word – usually words with 3 or more letters. Give the descriptive caption on a new line under the table number.

Use 12-point font, double-spacing and 2.54-centimetre (1-inch) margins, unless otherwise specified. Landscape orientation is often used to fit tables on a single page.

Ensure each column (or row) has a clear heading.

Label tables in appendices using capital letters, for example, Appendix A, Table A1, Table A2, Table B1 is the first table in Appendix B.

Use parenthetical citations (author, year) within each cell for multiple sources in a table.

If you have multiple sources within the same table, use superscript letters and provide full references in notes below the table.

Example

Table 1

APA uses serial commas, sometimes called an Oxford, Harvard or series comma. This means a comma is between the second-to-last and last item in a list.

With a list of 3 or more items, use commas between each item, not just the first 2 items, for example, 'commerce, religion, and politics'. This rule applies to the reference list, all in-text citations and text.

APA Style – Serial commas

This applies to in-text citations where there are more than 3 authors, which may need to be included for sources with identical authors and dates.

Use a semi-colon to separate list items that already have commas. End the list with a full stop.

Use semi-colons to separate citations within brackets.

APA in-text citations

Aside from when you quote, there are other situations where quotation marks may be used:

• Referring to a letter, word, or phrase as an example of itself or when reproducing verbatim instructions or stimuli. For example, the letter “s”; he wrote “I do”; They selected “orange”; The first question was “How often do you shower?”; The stimulus words were “red” and “green”.
• Around the title of something that is part of a greater work, such as an article or book chapter, when referred to in-text. Note this is different from how it is formatted in your reference list. For example, In “The Trial of Mr Peabody,” it was seen.
• Referring for the first time to a word or phrase used ironically, as slang or as an invented or coined word or expression. For example, She was “happy”; He carefully chose his “fit”; A “poonami”.

Learn more about quotation marks on APA Style: Mechanics of style: Italics and quotation marks

Using quotes in academic writing

Spacing after a full stop

Use 1 space after a full stop, question mark or any other punctuation mark at the end of a sentence.

Double brackets

Do not use double sets of brackets. Separate text within brackets with a semi-colon.

Use level 1 headings for the main sections of your assignment, such as the methods, discussion and conclusion. The introduction does not need a heading – your title and first paragraphs are understood to be introductory and the heading 'introduction' is unnecessary.

Your assignment title should be at the top of the first page and your first few paragraphs should clearly introduce your topic and intent.

Level 1 headings should be centred, bold and title case. Text following the heading should be a new, indented paragraph.

Use level 2 headings to introduce subsections within the main sections. Level 2 headings should be flush with the left margin, bold and title case. Text following the heading should be a new, indented paragraph.

Use level 3 headings to break your level 2 subsections into smaller sections. Level 3 headings should be flush with the left margin, bold, in italics and title case. Text following the heading should be a new, indented paragraph.

Use level 4 headings to break level 3 subsections into smaller sections. Level 4 headings should be indented like a new paragraph, bold, title case and end with a full stop. Unlike heading levels 1 to 3, you should begin the text on the same line as the heading – format text the same as a regular paragraph.

Use level 5 headings to break level 4 subsections into even smaller sections. Level 5 headings should be indented like a new paragraph, bold, in italics, title case and end with a full stop. Like level 4 headings, you should begin the text on the same line as the heading – format text the same as a regular paragraph.